Category Archives: Learn

Canada is the second largest country on earth—10 million square kilometres. Three oceans line Canada’s frontiers: the Pacific Ocean in the west, the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Along the southern edge of Canada lies the Canada-United States boundary. Both Canada and the U.S.A. are committed to a safe, secure and efficient frontier

The Regions of Canada

Canada includes many different geographical areas and five distinct regions.

• The Atlantic Provinces
• Central Canada
• The Prairie Provinces
• The West Coast
• The Northern Territories

The National Capital

Ottawa, located on the Ottawa River, was chosen as the capital in 1857 by Queen Victoria, the great-great-grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II. Today it is Canada’s fourth largest metropolitan area. The National Capital Region, 4,700 square kilometres surrounding Ottawa, preserves and enhances the area’s built heritage and natural environment.

Provinces and Territories

Canada has ten provinces and three territories. Each province and territory has its own capital city. You should know the capital of your province or territory as well as that of Canada.

Population

Canada has a population of about 34 million people. While the majority live in cities, Canadians also live in small towns, rural areas and everywhere in between.

The Atlantic provinces

Atlantic Canada’s coasts and natural resources, including fishing, farming, forestry and mining, have made these provinces an important part of Canada’s history and development. The Atlantic Ocean brings cool winters and cool humid summers.

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly point in North America and has its own time zone. In addition to its natural beauty, the province has a unique heritage linked to the sea. The oldest colony of the British Empire and a strategic prize in Canada’s early history, the province has long been known for its fisheries, coastal fishing villages and distinct culture. Today off-shore oil and gas extraction contributes a substantial part of the economy. Labrador also has immense hydro-electric resources.

Prince Edward Island

Prince Edward Island (P.E.I.) is the smallest province, known for its beaches, red soil and agriculture, especially potatoes. P.E.I. is the birthplace of Confederation, connected to mainland Canada by one of the longest continuous multispan bridges in the world, the Confederation Bridge. Anne of Green Gables, set in P.E.I. by Lucy Maud Montgomery, is a much-loved story about the adventures of a little red-headed orphan girl.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia is the most populous Atlantic Province, with a rich history as the gateway to Canada. Known for the world’s highest tides in the Bay of Fundy, the province’s identity is linked to shipbuilding, fisheries and shipping. As Canada’s largest east coast port, deep-water and ice-free, the capital, Halifax, has played an important role in Atlantic trade and defence and is home to Canada’s largest naval base. Nova Scotia has a long history of coal mining, forestry and agriculture. Today there is also off-shore oil and gas exploration. The province’s Celtic and Gaelic traditions sustain a vibrant culture. Nova Scotia is home to over 700 annual festivals, including the spectacular military tattoo in Halifax.

New Brunswick

Situated in the Appalachian Range, the province was founded by the United Empire Loyalists and has the second largest river system on North America’s Atlantic coastline, the St. John River system. Forestry, agriculture, fisheries, mining, food processing and tourism are the principal industries. Saint John is the largest city, port and manufacturing centre; Moncton is the principal Francophone Acadian centre; and Fredericton, the historic capital. New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual province, and about one-third of the population lives and works in French. The province’s pioneer Loyalist and French cultural heritage and history come alive in street festivals and traditional music.

Central Canada

More than half the people in Canada live in cities and towns near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River in southern Quebec and Ontario, known as Central Canada and the industrial and manufacturing heartland. Southern Ontario and Quebec have cold winters and warm humid summers. Together, Ontario and Quebec produce more than three-quarters of all Canadian manufactured goods.

Quebec

Nearly eight million people live in Quebec, the vast majority along or near the St. Lawrence River. More than three-quarters speak French as their first language. The resources of the Canadian Shield have helped Quebec to develop important industries, including forestry, energy and mining. Quebec is Canada’s main producer of pulp and paper. The province’s huge supply of fresh water has made it Canada’s largest producer of hydro-electricity. Quebecers are leaders in cutting-edge industries such as pharmaceuticals and aeronautics. Quebec films, music, literary works and food have international stature, especially in La Francophonie, an association of French-speaking nations. Montreal, Canada’s second largest city and the second largest mainly French-speaking city in the world after Paris, is famous for its cultural diversity.

Ontario

At more than 12 million, the people of Ontario make up more than one-third of Canadians. The large and culturally diverse population, natural resources and strategic location contribute to a vital economy. Toronto is the largest city in Canada and the country’s main financial centre. Many people work in the service or manufacturing industries, which produce a large percentage of Canada’s exports. The Niagara region is known for its vineyards, wines and fruit crops. Ontario farmers raise dairy and beef cattle, poultry, and vegetable and grain crops. Founded by United Empire Loyalists, Ontario also has the largest Frenchspeaking population outside of Quebec, with a proud history of preserving their language and culture. There are five Great Lakes located between Ontario and the United States: Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan (in the U.S.A.) and Lake Superior, the largest freshwater lake in the world.

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The Prairie Provinces

Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are the Prairie Provinces, rich in energy resources and some of the most fertile farmland in the world. The region is mostly dry, with cold winters and hot summers.

Manitoba

Manitoba’s economy is based on agriculture, mining and hydro-electric power generation. The province’s most populous city is Winnipeg, whose Exchange District includes the most famous street intersection in Canada, Portage and Main. Winnipeg’s French Quarter, St. Boniface, has Western Canada’s largest Francophone community at 45,000. Manitoba is also an important centre of Ukrainian culture, with 14% reporting Ukrainian origins, and the largest Aboriginal population of any province, at over 15%.

Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan, once known as the “breadbasket of the world” and the “wheat province,” has 40% of the arable land in Canada and is the country’s largest producer of grains and oilseeds. It also boasts the world’s richest deposits of uranium and potash, used in fertilizer, and produces oil and natural gas. Regina, the capital, is home to the training academy of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Saskatoon, the largest city, is the headquarters of the mining industry and an important educational, research and technology centre.

Alberta

Alberta is the most populous Prairie province. The province, and the world-famous Lake Louise in the Rocky Mountains, were both named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Alberta has five national parks, including Banff National Park, established in 1885. The rugged Badlands house some of the world’s richest deposits of prehistoric fossils and dinosaur finds. Alberta is the largest producer of oil and gas, and the oil sands in the north are being developed as a major energy source. Alberta is also renowned for agriculture, especially for the vast cattle ranches that make Canada one of the world’s major beef producers.

The West Coast

British Columbia is known for its majestic mountains and as Canada’s Pacific gateway. The Port of Vancouver, Canada’s largest and busiest, handles billions of dollars in goods traded around the world. Warm airstreams from the Pacific Ocean give the B.C. coast a temperate climate.

British Columbia

British Columbia (B.C.), on the Pacific coast, is Canada’s western most province, with a population of four million. The Port of Vancouver is our gateway to the Asia-Pacific. About one-half of all the goods produced in B.C. are forestry products, including lumber, newsprint, and pulp and paper products—the most valuable forestry industry in Canada. B.C. is also known for mining, fishing, and the fruit orchards and wine industry of the Okanagan Valley. B.C. has the most extensive park system in Canada, with approximately 600 provincial parks. The province’s large Asian communities have made Chinese and Punjabi the most spoken languages in the cities after English. The capital, Victoria, is a tourist centre and headquarters of the navy’s Pacific fleet.

The Northern Territories

The Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Yukon contain one-third of Canada’s land mass but have a population of only 100,000. There are gold, lead, copper, diamond and zinc mines. Oil and gas deposits are being developed. The North is often referred to as the “Land of the Midnight Sun” because at the height of summer, daylight can last up to 24 hours. In winter, the sun disappears and darkness sets in for three months. The Northern territories have long cold winters and short cool summers. Much of the North is made up of tundra, the vast rocky Arctic plain. Because of the cold Arctic climate, there are no trees on the tundra and the soil is permanently frozen. Some continue to earn a living by hunting, fishing and trapping. Inuit art is sold throughout Canada and around the world.

Yukon

Thousands of miners came to the Yukon during the Gold Rush of the 1890s, as celebrated in the poetry of Robert W. Service. Mining remains a significant part of the economy. The White Pass and Yukon Railway opened from Skagway in neighbouring Alaska to the territorial capital, Whitehorse in 1900 and provides a spectacular tourist excursion across precipitous passes and bridges. Yukon holds the record for the coldest temperature ever recorded in Canada (-63°C).

Mount Logan, located in the Yukon, is the highest mountain in Canada. It is named in honour of Sir William Logan, a world-famous geologist, born in Montreal in 1798 to Scottish immigrant parents. Logan founded and directed the Geological Survey of Canada from 1842 to 1869 and is considered one of Canada’s greatest scientists

The Northwest Territories (N.W.T.) were originally made up in 1870 from Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory. The capital, Yellowknife (population 20,000), is called the “diamond capital of North America.” More than half the population is Aboriginal (Dene, Inuit and Métis). The Mackenzie River, at 4,200 kilometres, is the second-longest river system in North America after the Mississippi and drains an area of 1.8 million square kilometres.

Nunavut

Nunavut, meaning “our land” in Inuktitut, was established in 1999 from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, including all of the former District of Keewatin. The capital is Iqaluit, formerly Frobisher Bay, named after the English explorer Martin Frobisher, who penetrated the uncharted Arctic for Queen Elizabeth I in 1576. The 19-member Legislative Assembly chooses a premier and ministers by consensus. The population is about 85% Inuit, and Inuktitut is an official language and the first language in schools.

The Canadian Rangers

Canada’s vast north brings security and sovereignty challenges. Dealing with harsh weather conditions in an isolated region, the Canadian Rangers, part of the Canadian Forces Reserves (militia), play a key role. Drawing on indigenous knowledge and experience, the Rangers travel by snowmobile in the winter and all-terrain vehicles in the summer from Resolute to the Magnetic North Pole, and keep the flag flying in Canada’s Arctic.

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A Trading Nation

Canada has always been a trading nation and commerce remains the engine of economic growth. As Canadians, we could not maintain our standard of living without engaging in trade with other nations.

In 1988, Canada enacted free trade with the United States. Mexico became a partner in 1994 in the broader North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), with over 444 million people and over $1 trillion in merchandise trade in 2008.

Today, Canada has one of the ten largest economies in the world and is part of the G8 group of leading industrialized countries with the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, France, Japan and Russia.

Canada has many important symbols — objects, events, and people that have special meaning. Together they help explain what it means to be Canadian and express our national identity. Important Canadian symbols appear throughout this booklet.

The Canadian justice system guarantees everyone due process under the law. Our judicial system is founded on the presumption of innocence in criminal matters, meaning everyone is innocent until proven guilty.

Canada’s legal system is based on a heritage that includes the rule of law, freedom under the law, democratic principles and due process. Due process is the principle that the government must respect all of legal rights a person is entitled to under the law.

Canada is governed by an organized system of laws. These laws are the written rules intended to guide people in our society. They are made by elected representatives. The courts settle disputes and the police enforce the laws. The law in Canada applies to everyone, including judges, politicians and the police. Our laws are intended to provide order in society and a peaceful way to settle disputes, and to express the values and beliefs of Canadians.

Courts

The Supreme Court of Canada is our country’s highest court. The Federal Court of Canada deals with matters concerning the federal government. In most provinces there is an appeal court and a trial court, sometimes called the Court of Queen’s Bench or the Supreme Court. There are also provincial courts for lesser offences, family courts, traffic courts and small claims courts for civil cases involving small sums of money.

Police

The police are there to keep people safe and to enforce the law. You can ask the police for help in all kinds of situations—if there’s been an accident, if someone has stolen something from you, if you are a victim of assault, if you see a crime taking place or if someone you know has gone missing.

There are different types of police in Canada. There are provincial police forces in Ontario and Quebec and municipal police departments in all provinces. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) enforce federal laws throughout Canada, and serve as the provincial police in all provinces and territories except Ontario and Quebec, as well as in some municipalities. Remember, the police are there to help you.

You can also question the police about their service or conduct if you feel you need to. Almost all police forces in Canada have a process by which you can bring your concerns to the police and seek action.

Getting Legal Help

Lawyers can help you with legal problems and act for you in court. If you cannot pay for a lawyer, in most communities there are legal aid services available free of charge or at a low cost.

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Canadians vote in elections for the people they want to represent them in the House of Commons. In each election, voters may re-elect the same members of the House of Commons or choose new ones. Members of the House of Commons are also known as members of Parliament or MPs.

Under legislation passed by Parliament, federal elections must be held on the third Monday in October every four years following the most recent general election. The Prime Minister may ask the Governor General to call an earlier election.

Canada is divided into 308 electoral districts, also known as ridings or constituencies. An electoral district is a geographical area represented by a member of Parliament (MP). The citizens in each electoral district elect one MP who sits in the House of Commons to represent them, as well as all Canadians.

Canadian citizens who are 18 years old or older may run in a federal election. The people who run for office are called candidates. There can be many candidates in an electoral district.

The people in each electoral district vote for the candidate and political party of their choice. The candidate who receives the most votes becomes the MP for that electoral district.

Voting

One of the privileges of Canadian citizenship is the right to vote. You are eligible to vote in a federal election or cast a ballot in a federal referendum if you are:

• • a Canadian citizen; and
• • at least 18 years old on voting day; and
• • on the voters’ list.

The voters’ lists used during federal elections and referendums are produced from the National Register of Electors by a neutral agency of Parliament called Elections Canada. This is a permanent database of Canadian citizens 18 years of age or older who are qualified to vote in federal elections and referendums.

Once an election has been called, Elections Canada mails a voter information card to each elector whose name is in the National Register of Electors. The card lists when and where you vote and the number to call if you require an interpreter or other special services.

Even if you choose not to be listed in the National Register of Electors or do not receive a voter information card, you can still be added to the voters’ list at any time, including on election day.

To vote either on election day or at advance polls, go to the polling station listed on your voter information card. (See Voting Procedures)

Secret Ballot

Canadian law secures the right to a secret ballot. This means that no one can watch you vote and no one should look at how you voted. You may choose to discuss how you voted with others, but no one, including family members, your employer or union representative, has the right to insist that you tell them how you voted. Immediately after the polling stations close, election officers count the ballots and the results are announced on radio and television, and in the newspapers.

After an Election

Ordinarily, after an election, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons is invited by the Governor General to form the government. After being appointed by the Governor General, the leader of this party becomes the Prime Minister. If the party in power holds at least half of the seats in the House of Commons, this is called a majority government. If the party in power holds less than half of the seats in the House of Commons, this is called a minority government.

The Prime Minister and the party in power run the government as long as they have the support or confidence of the majority of the MPs. When the House of Commons votes on a major issue such as the budget, this is considered a matter of confidence. If a majority of the members of the House of Commons vote against a major government decision, the party in power is defeated, which usually results in the Prime Minister asking the Governor General, on behalf of the Sovereign, to call an election.

The Prime Minister chooses the ministers of the Crown, most of them from among members of the House of Commons. Cabinet ministers are responsible for running the federal government departments. The Prime Minister and the Cabinet ministers are called the Cabinet and they make important decisions about how the country is governed. They prepare the budget and propose most new laws. Their decisions can be questioned by all members of the House of Commons.

The other parties that are not in power are known as opposition parties. The opposition party with the most members of the House of Commons is the Official Opposition or Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition. The role of opposition parties is to peacefully oppose or try to improve government proposals. There are three major political parties currently represented in the House of Commons: the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, and the New Democratic Party.

Voting Procedures During an Election Period

1. Voter information card

Electors whose information is in the National Register of Electors will receive a voter information card. This confirms that your name is on the voters’ list and states when and where you vote

2. I did not get a card

If you do not receive a voter information card, call your local elections office to ensure that you are on the voters’ list. If you do not have the number, call Elections Canada, in Ottawa, at 1-800-463-6868.

3. Advance poll and special ballot

If you cannot or do not wish to vote on election day, you can vote at the advance polls or by special ballot. The dates and location are on your voter information card.

4. On election day

Go to your polling station. The location is on your voter information card. Bring this card and proof of your identity and address to the polling station.

5. Marking the ballot

Mark an “X” in the circle next to the name of the candidate of your choice.

6. Voting is secret

Your vote is secret. You will be invited to go behind the screen to mark your ballot. Once marked, fold it and present it to the poll officials.

7. The ballot box

The poll official will tear off the ballot number and give your ballot back to you to deposit in the ballot box.

8. The election results

When the polls close, every ballot is counted and the results are made public. You can see the results on television or on the Elections Canada website (www.elections.ca).

Other Levels of Government in Canada

Local or municipal government plays an important role in the lives of our citizens. Municipal governments usually have a council that passes laws called “by-laws” that affect only the local community. The council usually includes a mayor (or a reeve) and councillors or aldermen. Municipalities are normally responsible for urban or regional planning, streets and roads, sanitation (such as garbage removal), snow removal, firefighting, ambulance and other emergency services, recreation facilities, public transit and some local health and social services. Most major urban centres have municipal police forces.

Provincial, territorial and municipal elections are held by secret ballot, but the rules are not the same as those for federal elections. It is important to find out the rules for voting in provincial, territorial and local elections so that you can exercise your right to vote.

The First Nations have band chiefs and councillors who have major responsibilities on First Nations reserves, including housing, schools and other services. There are a number of provincial, regional and national Aboriginal organizations that are a voice for First Nations, Métis and Inuit people in their relationships with the federal, provincial and territorial governments.

How Much Do You Know About Your Government?

Use these pages to take notes and to study important information.

Federal Government

Head of State:

The name of the representative of the Queen of Canada, the Governor General, is…

The Head of Government, the Prime Minister, is…

The name of the political party in power is…

The name of the Leader of the Opposition is…

The name of the party representing Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition is…

The names of the other opposition parties and leaders are…

My Member of Parliament (MP) in Ottawa is…

My federal electoral district is called…

Provincial Government

The name of the representative of the Queen for my province is…

The representative of the Queen in my province, the Lieutenant Governor, is…

The Head of Government (the Premier) is…

The name of the provincial party in power is…

The names of the provincial opposition parties and leaders are…

My provincial representative is…

Territorial Government

The name of the Commissioner, who represents the federal government in my territory, is…

The name of the Premier is…

The name of my territorial representative is…

Municipal Government

The name of the municipality where I live is…

The name of the head of the municipal government (mayor or reeve) is…

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There are three key facts about Canada’s system of government: our country is a federal state, a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy.

Federal State

There are federal, provincial, territorial and municipal governments in Canada. The responsibilities of the federal and provincial governments were defined in 1867 in the British North America Act, now known as the Constitution Act, 1867.

In our federal state, the federal government takes responsibility for matters of national and international concern. These include defence, foreign policy, interprovincial trade and communications, currency, navigation, criminal law and citizenship. The provinces are responsible for municipal government, education, health, natural resources, property and civil rights, and highways. The federal government and the provinces share jurisdiction over agriculture and immigration. Federalism allows different provinces to adopt policies tailored to their own populations, and gives provinces the flexibility to experiment with new ideas and policies.

Every province has its own elected Legislative Assembly, like the House of Commons in Ottawa. The three northern territories, which have small populations, do not have the status of provinces, but their governments and assemblies carry out many of the same functions.

Parliamentary Democracy

In Canada’s parliamentary democracy, the people elect members to the House of Commons in Ottawa and to the provincial and territorial legislatures. These representatives are responsible for passing laws, approving and monitoring expenditures, and keeping the government accountable. Cabinet ministers are responsible to the elected representatives, which means they must retain the “confidence of the House” and have to resign if they are defeated in a non-confidence vote.

Parliament has three parts: the Sovereign (Queen or King), the Senate and the House of Commons. Provincial legislatures comprise the Lieutenant Governor and the elected Assembly.

In the federal government, the Prime Minister selects the Cabinet ministers and is responsible for the operations and policy of the government. The House of Commons is the representative chamber, made up of members of Parliament elected by the people, traditionally every four years. Senators are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and serve until age 75. Both the House of Commons and the Senate consider and review bills (proposals for new laws). No bill can become law in Canada until it has been passed by both chambers and has received royal assent, granted by the Governor General on behalf of the Sovereign.

Living in a democracy, Canadian citizens have the right and the responsibility to participate in making decisions that affect them. It is important for Canadians aged 18 or more to participate in their democracy by voting in federal, provincial or territorial and municipal elections.

Making laws

How a bill becomes law — The Legislative Process

STEP 1 First Reading — The bill is considered read for the first time and is printed.

STEP 2 Second Reading — Members debate the bill’s principle.

STEP 3 Committee Stage — Committee members study the bill clause by clause.

STEP 4 Report Stage — Members can make other amendments.

STEP 5 Third Reading — Members debate and vote on the bill.

STEP 6 Senate — The bill follows a similar process in the Senate.

STEP 7 Royal Assent — The bill receives royal assent after being passed by both Houses.

Constitutional Monarchy

As a constitutional monarchy, Canada’s Head of State is a hereditary Sovereign (Queen or King), who reigns in accordance with the Constitution: the rule of law. The Sovereign is a part of Parliament, playing an important, non-partisan role as the focus of citizenship and allegiance, most visibly during royal visits to Canada. Her Majesty is a symbol of Canadian sovereignty, a guardian of constitutional freedoms, and a reflection of our history. The Royal Family’s example of lifelong service to the community is an encouragement for citizens to give their best to their country. As Head of the Commonwealth, the Sovereign links Canada to 53 other nations that cooperate to advance social, economic and cultural progress. Other constitutional monarchies include Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Spain, Thailand, Japan, Jordan and Morocco.

There is a clear distinction in Canada between the head of state—the Sovereign—and the head of government—the Prime Minister, who actually directs the governing of the country.

The Sovereign is represented in Canada by the Governor General, who is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, usually for five years. In each of the ten provinces, the Sovereign is represented by the Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister, also normally for five years.

The interplay between the three branches of government—the Executive, Legislative and Judicial—which work together but also sometimes in creative tension, helps to secure the rights and freedoms of Canadians. Each provincial and territorial government has an elected legislature where provincial and territorial laws are passed. The members of the legislature are called members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), members of the National Assembly (MNAs), members of the Provincial Parliament (MPPs) or members of the House of Assembly (MHAs), depending on the province or territory.

In each province, the Premier has a role similar to that of the Prime Minister in the federal government, just as the Lieutenant Governor has a role similar to that of the Governor General. In the three territories, the Commissioner represents the federal government and plays a ceremonial role.

Canada’s System of Government

This graphic shows Canada’s System of Government.

Canada’s system of government consists of the Parliament which has three parts: the Sovereign, who is represented in Canada by the Governor General; the Senate, which is comprised of Senators appointed on the Prime Minister’s recommendation; and the House of Commons, made up of members elected by voters. In the House of Commons, there are Government Members and Opposition Members.

The three branches of government – the executive branch (which includes the Prime Minister and Cabinet), the legislative branch and Judiciary branch are also indicated.

The Legislative Branch of Canada’s government is comprised of the Sovereign, the Senate and the House of Commons.

The Judiciary branch is made up of the Supreme Court of Canada which consists of nine judges appointed by the Governor General. Below the Supreme Court of Canada are the Federal Court of Canada and the Provincial Courts.

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Trade and Economic Growth

As prosperity grew, so did the ability to support social assistance programs. The Canada Health Act ensures common elements and a basic standard of coverage. Unemployment insurance (now called “employment insurance”) was introduced by the federal government in 1940. Old Age Security was devised as early as 1927, and the Canada and Quebec Pension Plans in 1965. Publicly funded education is provided by the provinces and territories.

International Engagement

Canada and Quebec

French-Canadian society and culture flourished in the postwar years. Quebec experienced an era of rapid change in the 1960s known as the Quiet Revolution. Many Quebecers sought to separate from Canada. In 1963 Parliament established the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. This led to the Official Languages Act (1969), which guarantees French and English services in the federal government across Canada. In 1970, Canada helped found La Francophonie, an international association of French-speaking countries.

The movement for Quebec sovereignty gained strength but was defeated in a referendum in the province in 1980. After much negotiation, in 1982 the Constitution was amended without the agreement of Quebec. Though sovereignty was again defeated in a second referendum in 1995, the autonomy of Quebec within Canada remains a lively topic—part of the dynamic that continues to shape our country.

A Changing Society

As social values changed over more than 50 years, Canada became a more flexible and open society. Many took advantage of expanding secondary and postsecondary educational opportunities and a growing number of women entered the professional work force.

Most Canadians of Asian descent had in the past been denied the vote in federal and provincial elections. In 1948 the last of these, the Japanese-Canadians, gained the right to vote. Aboriginal people were granted the vote in 1960. Today every citizen over the age of 18 may vote.

Canada welcomed thousands of refugees from Communist oppression, including about 37,000 who escaped Soviet tyranny in Hungary in 1956. With the Communist victory in the Vietnam War in 1975, many Vietnamese fled, including over 50,000 who sought refuge in Canada.

The idea of multiculturalism, as a result of 19^th– and 20^th-century immigration, gained a new impetus. By the 1960s, one-third of Canadians had origins that were neither British nor French, and took pride in preserving their distinct culture in the Canadian fabric. Today, diversity enriches Canadians’ lives, particularly in our cities.

Arts and Culture in Canada

Sports have flourished as all provinces and territories have produced amateur and professional star athletes and Olympic medal winners. Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891. Many major league sports boast Canadian talent and in the national sport of ice hockey, Canadian teams have dominated the world. In 1996 at the Olympic Summer Games, Donovan Bailey became a world record sprinter and double Olympic gold medallist. Chantal Petitclerc became a world champion wheelchair racer and Paralympic gold medalist. One of the greatest hockey players of all time, Wayne Gretzky, played for the Edmonton Oilers from 1979 to 1988.

In 1980, Terry Fox, a British Columbian who lost his right leg to cancer at the age of 18, began a cross-country run, the “Marathon of Hope,” to raise money for cancer research. He became a hero to Canadians. While he did not finish the run and ultimately lost his battle with cancer, his legacy continues through yearly fundraising events in his name. In 1985, fellow British Columbian Rick Hansen circled the globe in a wheelchair to raise funds for spinal cord research.

Canadian advances in science and technology are world renowned and have changed the way the world communicates and does business. Marshall McLuhan and Harold Innis were pioneer thinkers. Science and research in Canada have won international recognition and attracted world-class students, academics and entrepreneurs engaged in medical research, telecommunications and other fields. Since 1989, the Canadian Space Agency and Canadian astronauts have participated in space exploration, often using the Canadian-designed and built Canadarm. Gerhard Herzberg, a refugee from Nazi Germany, John Polanyi, Sidney Altman, Richard E. Taylor, Michael Smith and Bertram Brockhouse were Nobel Prize-winning scientists.

The prosperity and diversity of our country depend on all Canadians working together to face challenges of the future. In seeking to become a citizen, you are joining a country that, with your active participation, will continue to grow and thrive.

How will you make your contribution to Canada?

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Aboriginal Peoples

 Count Frontenac refused to surrender Quebec to the English in 1690, saying: “My only reply will be from the mouths of my cannons!” Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville, was a great hero of New France, winning many victories over the English, from James Bay in the north to Nevis in the Caribbean, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester), as Governor of Quebec, defended the rights of the Canadiens, defeated an American military invasion of Quebec in 1775, and supervised the Loyalist migration to Nova Scotia and Quebec in 1782-83.

Struggle for a Continent

In 1670, King Charles II of England granted the Hudson’s Bay Company exclusive trading rights over the watershed draining into Hudson Bay. For the next 100 years the Company competed with Montreal-based traders. The skilled and courageous men who travelled by canoe were called voyageurs and coureurs des bois, and formed strong alliances with First Nations. English colonies along the Atlantic seaboard, dating from the early 1600s, eventually became richer and more populous than New France. In the 1700s France and Great Britain battled for control of North America. In 1759, the British defeated the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Québec City — marking the end of France’s empire in America. The commanders of both armies, Brigadier James Wolfe and the Marquis de Montcalm, were killed leading their troops in battle.

The Province of Quebec

Following the war, Great Britain renamed the colony the “Province of Quebec.” The Frenchspeaking Catholic people, known as habitants or Canadiens, strove to preserve their way of life in the English-speaking, Protestant-ruled British Empire.

A Tradition of Accommodation

To better govern the French Roman Catholic majority, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. One of the constitutional foundations of Canada, the Quebec Act accommodated the principles of British institutions to the reality of the province. It allowed religious freedom for Catholics and permitted them to hold public office, a practice not then allowed in Britain. The Quebec Act restored French civil law while maintaining British criminal law.

United Empire Loyalists

In 1776, the 13 British colonies to the south of Quebec declared independence and formed the United States. North America was again divided by war. More than 40,000 people loyal to the Crown, called “Loyalists,” fled the oppression of the American Revolution to settle in Nova Scotia and Quebec. Joseph Brant led thousands of Loyalist Mohawk Indians into Canada. The Loyalists came from Dutch, German, British, Scandinavian, Aboriginal and other origins and from Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Jewish, Quaker, and Catholic religious backgrounds. About 3,000 black Loyalists, freedmen and slaves, came north seeking a better life. In turn, in 1792, some black Nova Scotians, who were given poor land, moved on to establish Freetown, Sierra Leone (West Africa), a new British colony for freed slaves.

Rebellions of 1837–38

In the 1830s, reformers in Upper and Lower Canada believed that progress toward full democracy was too slow. Some believed Canada should adopt American republican values or even try to join the United States. When armed rebellions occurred in 1837–38 in the area outside Montreal and in Toronto, the rebels did not have enough public support to succeed. They were defeated by British troops and Canadian volunteers. A number of rebels were hanged or exiled; some exiles later returned to Canada.

Confederation

THIS IS THE END OF UNIT 3: PART 2

Challenge in the West

When Canada took over the vast northwest region from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869, the 12,000 Métis of the Red River were not consulted. In response, Louis Riel led an armed uprising and seized Fort Garry, the territorial capital. Canada’s future was in jeopardy. How could the Dominion reach from sea to sea if it could not control the interior?

Ottawa sent soldiers to retake Fort Garry in 1870. Riel fled to the United States and Canada established a new province: Manitoba. Riel was elected to Parliament but never took his seat. Later, as Métis and Indian rights were again threatened by westward settlement, a second rebellion in 1885 in present-day Saskatchewan led to Riel’s trial and execution for high treason, a decision that was strongly opposed in Quebec. Riel is seen by many as a hero, a defender of Métis rights and the father of Manitoba.

After the first Métis uprising, Prime Minister Macdonald established the North West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1873 to pacify the West and assist in negotiations with the Indians. The NWMP founded Fort Calgary, Fort MacLeod and other centres that today are cities and towns. Regina became its headquarters. Today, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP or “the Mounties”) are the national police force and one of Canada’s best-known symbols. Some of Canada’s most colourful heroes, such as Major General Sir Sam Steele, came from the ranks of the Mounties.

Moving Westward

Canada’s economy grew and became more industrialized during the economic boom of the 1890s and early 1900s. One million British and one million Americans immigrated to Canada at this time. Sir Wilfrid Laurier became the first French-Canadian prime minister since Confederation and encouraged immigration to the West. His portrait is on the $5 bill. The railway made it possible for immigrants, including 170,000 Ukrainians, 115,000 Poles and tens of thousands from Germany, France, Norway and Sweden to settle in the West before 1914 and develop a thriving agricultural sector.

The First World War

Women Get the Vote

In 1917, thanks to the leadership of women such as Dr. Stowe and other suffragettes, the federal government of Sir Robert Borden gave women the right to vote in federal elections — first to nurses at the battle front, then to women who were related to men in active wartime service. In 1918, most Canadian female citizens aged 21 and over were granted the right to vote in federal elections. In 1921 Agnes Macphail, a farmer and teacher, became the first woman MP. Due to the work of Thérèse Casgrain and others, Quebec granted women the vote in 1940.

The Second World War

The Second World War began in 1939 when Adolf Hitler, the National Socialist (Nazi) dictator of Germany, invaded Poland and conquered much of Europe. Canada joined with its democratic allies in the fight to defeat tyranny by force of arms.

More than one million Canadians and Newfoundlanders (Newfoundland was a separate British entity) served in the Second World War, out of a population of 11.5 million. This was a high proportion and of these, 44,000 were killed.

The Canadians fought bravely and suffered losses in the unsuccessful defence of Hong Kong (1941) from attack by Imperial Japan, and in a failed raid on Nazi-controlled Dieppe on the coast of France (1942).

The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) took part in the Battle of Britain and provided a high proportion of Commonwealth aircrew in bombers and fighter planes over Europe. Moreover, Canada contributed more to the Allied air effort than any other Commonwealth country, with over 130,000 Allied air crew trained in Canada under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.

The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) saw its finest hour in the Battle of the Atlantic, protecting convoys of merchant ships against German submarines. Canada’s Merchant Navy helped to feed, clothe and resupply Britain. At the end of the Second World War, Canada had the third-largest navy in the world.

In the Pacific war, Japan invaded the Aleutian Islands, attacked a lighthouse on Vancouver Island, launched fire balloons over B.C. and the Prairies, and grossly maltreated Canadian prisoners of war captured at Hong Kong. Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945—the end of four years of war in the Pacific.

Regrettably, the state of war and public opinion in B.C. led to the forcible relocation of Canadians of Japanese origin by the federal government and the sale of their property without compensation. This occurred even though the military and the RCMP told Ottawa that they posed little danger to Canada. The Government of Canada apologized in 1988 for wartime wrongs and compensated the victims.

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